Scalars vs. Vectors

A scalar is a quantity with only a size, like speed (60 mph) or mass (10 kg). A vector is a quantity with both size and direction, like velocity (60 mph North) or force (10 Newtons downward). We draw vectors as arrows.

Components: The arrow's length represents the vector's magnitude (size), and the way it points shows its direction.

Earth's Internal Heat Engine

The Earth's interior is extremely hot. This heat comes from the energy released during the natural radioactive decay of elements inside the Earth. This process has been happening for billions of years, keeping our planet geologically active.

Mantle Convection

The heat from the core causes the rock in the mantle to slowly churn. Hotter, less-dense rock rises, cools near the surface, and then sinks again. This cycle, called mantle convection, is the engine that moves the tectonic plates.

Plate Tectonics & Boundaries

The Earth's crust is broken into large pieces called tectonic plates. Most geological action (earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building) happens at the boundaries where these plates interact. There are three types: Divergent (moving apart), Convergent (moving together), and Transform (sliding past).